Package 2 report

Hey my dear friends, I have edit the report and shorten it by a bit only.. However it still exceed the required pages... Anyway do take a look and make any changes... I have upload it at both the discussion board as well as in the file exchange...

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Methods of gene transfer to crop plants

Methods of gene transfer to crop plants

Firstly the desired traits are obtained and are inserted into the genome of the plant. The genes are duplicated and then are transferred into the plants within vehicles also called vectors which are obtained from the small circular of DNA structures in bacteria known as plasmids. In order for the foreign genes to be introduced, the vector is cut using restriction enzymes while ligase enzymes rejoin the vector. Bacterial genes are adopted up to the early 1990s for genes transfer to transport the desired trait into a plants genome. Direct methods of transferring DNA such as microprojectiles became popular during the 1990s. Other methods such as electroporation and sonication where electric shocks and sound waves are being adopted to create a holes in the cell membrane to insert the foreign genes.

For more imformation, check out the book below...

Reference: Stephen Nottingham. 1998, Eat your genes: how genetically modified food is entering our diet, Zed Books Ltd.

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Aziyani

My research

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all of this is my research.. Do take a look and feel free to make any constructive comments... Thanks...

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Controversial issues related with the use of genetically modified food

Allergies
Crops are being modified basically to improve the nutritional value of a food. However the foreign genes that are inserted on these crops may cause allergies to some people due to the ineffectiveness of the antibodies to defence against any attack. Food that are genetically engineered contain trace amount of protein which will trigger allergic reactions. For example Soybean has been modified using genes from the Brazil nut that contain methionine which are lacking in soybean and thus causing allergic reaction on these people that are allergic to Brazil nut.
Reference: Stephen Nottingham. 1998, Eat your genes: how genetically modified food is entering our diet, Zed Books Ltd.
Environmental impact
~Biodiversity
There is a threat that this genetically modified food may spread their genes through breeding, to other crops containing their altered genes. Thus this will have an impact on the ecosystems.

Reference: http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring/GMFoods/impactsenvironmentcons.html
~Super weeds
The spread of GM pollen might also lead to cross pollination with other crops. If this GM trait is to pick up by this crop, it might take over the ecosystem destroying other crops causing loss of biodiversity. These superweeds are herbicides-resistant and are not easy to be removed.
Reference: http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring/GMFoods/impactsenvironmentcons.html
Ethics
~Destruction of natural organisms' intrinsic values
~Tampering with nature by altering genes among species
~Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa especially in vegetarians
~Stress for animal
Labeling
~Not compulsory in some countries (e.g., United States)
~Some manufacturer fails to label food that is genetically modified thus confusing people between foods that are natural and food that are engineered.
Society
~The rich become richer and the poor become poorer
Available at: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml (accessed 15 June 2008)

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Aziyani

Religious/ethical issues that may arise when GM foods is cultivated and consumed

The use of genes from animals that are forbidden by certain religious groups such as Muslims may create inconvenience to these groups of people particularly when pork genes are concerned. [1]
Animal wellbeing could also be badly affected. the widespread use of growth hormones will cause the animals to suffer from stress and disease problems. For example, cows may be given more powerful GM growth hormones could suffer from related health problems. [2]
Available at:
1. http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB/manuscripts/manuscripts2003/Novembermanuscrits2003/Kelemu/Kelemu%20et%20al.htm (accessed 15 June 2008)
2. http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Genetically_modified_foods?OpenDocument
(accessed 29 June 2008)

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Aziyani

Principles used in the genetic modification process of food

There are five major steps involved in genetically engineering plants. These are DNA isolation, single gene cloning, gene designing, cell transformation, and backcross breeding.
Firstly, the DNA is extracted from an organism that has the desired trait. The desired gene is then located and copied. The gene is added into a single plant cell using a transformation technique. If the transgene successfully lands in the cells nucleus and is incorporated into one of the chromosomes, then the trait that it codes for will be expressed in the cell's offspring.
• The cell proliferates and grows into new plant that contains the desired genes
• Through pollination the transgenic plant is crossed with a plant from a high yielding line. The resulting hybrids are the genetically modified plants that can be sold in the market.
Available at: http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring/GMFoods/howtooverview.html (accessed 15 June 2008)

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Aziyani

Differences and similarities between DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA has a sugar-phosphate backbone with nucleotide bases attached to it. DNA and RNA also contains the bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G); however, RNA does not contain thymine, instead, RNA's fourth nucleotide is the base uracil (U). DNA is a double-stranded molecule while RNA is a single-stranded molecule. RNA is the main genetic material used in the organisms called viruses, and RNA is also essential in the production of proteins in other living organisms. RNA can circulate around the cells of living organisms and thus serve as a sort of genetic messenger, conveying the information stored in the cell's DNA out from the nucleus to other parts of the cell where it is used to help manufacture proteins.

Available at: http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=63(accessed
(29 June 2008)

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Aziyani

How to identify GM food

Tests for GM Foods
PCR or Polymerase Chain Reaction is a technique used to test for GM food. The polymerase chain reaction is a technique for the intensification of DNA in the laboratory.
The DNA sample has to be enlarged about a million times producing a large number of copies of a DNA sequence so that its size, sequence etc. can be determined. The exact stretch of DNA to be amplified is known as the target sequence which is recognized by a specific pair of DNA primer. Hence make an exact copy of DNA sequence to be identified.
PCR is accurate, but may be complicated and expensive especially for the less developed countries to invest in this kind of sophisticated genetic testing. Identifying GM foods that are containing in processed foods such as baby food are another problem faced.

Reference:
Available at:
http://www.agnet.org/library/nc/139a/
(accessed 29 June 2008)

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Aziyani

Benefits and disadvantages of GM food

Benefits and disadvantages of Genetically Modified food

Benefits of GM food crops

~Increase in food supply
Some GM food crops are able to produce higher outputs compared to non-GM food crops. The increase in food supply leads to a decline in food prices, making food more affordable in low developed countries. This can help reduce the problems of malnutrition and improve people's health. [3]

~Improves nutritional value of food
Some GM food crops are modified so that they are more nutritious. The introduction of such foods in less developed countries can help reduce problems of malnutrition. [3]

~Reduces environmental pollution
Crops could be genetically modified to reduce the dependence on chemicals. This will reduce the amount of chemicals used in agriculture and subsequently reduce the negative impact these chemicals have on the environment. [3]

Threats of GM food crops

~ Potential health risks
GM food may include certain food substances that people are allergic to. This is due to the fact that the people may not be fully aware of the food that they eats are actually food that already have their genes altered. In 2005, a GM pea caused health problems in research mice and had to be canceled. [3]

~Loss of biodiversity express
Biodiversity refers to the great variety of living things in an ecosystem. The Environmentalists were concerned over how GM food crops can affect biodiversity. For eg, some pest-resistant plants in some ways are wiping out harmless insects. The death of these insects will indirectly affect the animals further up the food chain. Biodiversity will hence be lost due to the extinction of these plants and animals.[3]

~ Loss of natural species
Some GM food crops may also contaminate other natural crops and this process is irreversible. These will end result in the loss of natural plant species which will again leads to loss of biodiversity.

Gene pollution may also lead to the growth of superweeds, which are resistance to herbicides. The numbers of these superweeds have been increasing over the years and more effective herbicides have to be applied to get rid of them. This situation will be very difficult to handle especially when the growths of these superweeds are beyond anyone control. [3]

~ GM food may affect the nutritional value of the food. [1]

~ Reduction of the efficiency of antibiotics. In this case the bacteria will pick up the antibiotic resistant genes that are contain in the GM foods which are used as a indicator for the scientist to indicate which plants have been modified genetically. Thus, if these bacteria pick up the antibiotic-resistant genes the already growing bacteria adapting to our bacteria will be magnified. [1, 2]

~ GM food raised religious concern.

Available at:

1. http://www.geocities.com/gm_crops/questions.html (accessed 15 June 2008)

2. http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring/GMFoods/impactshumanconsumptioncons.html (accessed 15 June 2008)

3. Khoo Ming Ghee, Tan Say Pin. 2007, Earth: Our home Geography Elective, Marshall Cavendish Education

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Aziyani